On the Road by Jack Kerouac Essay Example for Free

On the Road by Jack Kerouac Essay Now considered not only a legendary work within the history of American literature, Jack Kerouac’s â€Å"On the Road† is also regarded as the pivotal work of an entire generation of young Americans looking for purpose and direction in a nation not far removed from world war, and becoming increasingly complicated and fast paced. In the midst of the sweeping societal changes depicted through Kerouac’s characters in â€Å"On the Road†, the protagonist of the story, Dean Moriarty, stands as an iconic, enigmatic figure. In this essay, the dynamics and complexities of Moriarty’s personality, as well as the changes that this personality undergoes as â€Å"On the Road† unfolds will be discussed in order to better understand not only Moriarty as a character, but also what he represents. Dean Moriarty’s Changes Within the Plot of â€Å"On the Road† The changes that Moriarty goes through in Kerouac’s book are symbolic not only of the general direction of his life itself, but also the society in which he lives, the people with whom he interacts, and what the future holds for everyone, including this character himself. Gaining even a fundamental understanding of the character of Moriarty in necessary to make this possible. Dean Moriarty makes a notable entrance into the plot of â€Å"On the Road†; from the very beginning, he captures the interest of the other characters in the book because of his very nature, which is highly animated, yet appealing because of his obvious passion for life and his interest in living every moment to its fullest (Whissen, 1992). At the same time, showing that he is a constantly changing individual, Moriarty is alienated from some of the more conventional people who are friends with other main characters in the story, a divide which none of the main characters make an effort to remedy, setting the stage for Moriarty to blaze his own path in subsequent sections of the book. Perhaps on of the most significant characteristics of Moriarty, which serves as a catalyst for many of the changes through which he goes, is the fact that he is very appealing to the opposite sex; this sort of romantic tension creates a bit of mystery about Moriarty (Swartz, 1999). This charisma also opens up a world of possibilities for Moriarty to explore, and presents him with many temptations and challenges that other people may never experience. Whether this charisma with women was something that came about just by the way that Moriarty presented himself, or it was something toward which he aspired and took specific steps to ensure that women would find him desirable, this aspect of his personality was the first step in the changes that he undergoes throughout the story. First, in regard to Moriarty’s changes, the fact that he carries on multiple relationships with women, many at the same time, makes it necessary for Moriarty to constantly travel throughout the nation, truly embodying the â€Å"on the road† lifestyle which forms the backbone of Kerouac’s book. The consequences of these many relationships, and the ensuing complications and commitments that come out of them, create problems for Moriarty that he is forced to confront, and conform to as well. The complexity of these relationships is made even more dramatic by the fact that eventually, Moriarty fathers multiple children with multiple women, making it all but impossible for him to carry on any kind of a conventional life or to remain stationery in one place for any amount of time; the ability that most people have to lead an ordinary, day to day existence, is denied Moriarty because of the choices he makes in his personal life until almost the end of the book. A second area of change for Dean Moriarty is seen in his social interactions with friends beyond the level of romantic interludes. Socially, Moriarty also undergoes a great deal of change as the plot of the book unfolds. Because of Moriarty’s alienation from people beyond his immediate circle of close friends, he becomes more withdrawn from the regular social aspects of everyday society and has a sort of sadness and emptiness about him. This emptiness is filled with sordid affairs with women as was discussed earlier, travel, and excesses such as drinking and outlandish behavior, which will be discussed in more detail in a subsequent section of this essay. Moriarty’s charismatic nature in some instances is also important to realize from the viewpoint of the change that he affects in others, perhaps most significantly in the case of his best friend, Sal Paradise. Because Sal looks up to Dean in basically every area of life as a role model of sorts (Whissen, 1992), he imitates even Dean’s worst behavioral traits, including the constant traveling. The foolishness of this imitation is made more dramatic by the fact that Sal is older than Dean, making the implication that Dean could in fact learn a lot from Sal if the situation were somehow reversed. Finally, a change that Moriarty attempts is as significant as any of the others which he ahs undergone throughout â€Å"On the Road†. Ultimately, Moriarty attempts to take on the persona of a civilized and responsible individual when he acknowledges his responsibilities to his marriage vows and the children that were created as a result of his marital union. Getting a job and attempting to settle into a normal, structured home life, Moriarty does give this endeavor and life change a sincere effort, but he soon finds that this is more difficult for him than he may have expected. Due to this realization, which some might say is a recognition of his own nature as a traveling, somewhat chaotic individual with a high level of appeal to women in general, he quickly loses interest in being a good father and husband; for example, ignoring the cries of his child, obsessing about the other women with whom he was involved in the past, and more than likely planning the next step of his symbolic and literally road journey in a search for what is missing in his life, and what the life of an average husband/father, in his view, fails to deliver. An Insight into Moriarty’s Mindset By studying the pattern of Moriarty’s behavior, and the different personalities and attitudes he embraces, it is much easier to profile the mindset of this enigmatic and complicated character. Moriarty’s inner emptiness is apparent when his actions and value systems, flawed as they are, are separated from the action of â€Å"On the Road†, and the story itself is looked at in a more philosophical way. The argument can be made that Moriarty’s mindset is symbolic of the state of affairs in America at the time that Kerouac wrote his book; because the nation was in the process of gaining a new identity following World War II and before the Korean War reached its climax, the nation collectively, and Dean Moriarty individually, began to question what the nature of life is all about and whether the regular, day to day life of the average person is the best state of living that one can reach (Begnal, 1998). A restless nation, reflected in the restless persona of Moriarty, comes shining through, towering over the plot and other characters of the book itself. Also, the question of the nature of Moriarty’s charisma is important when gaining a fuller understanding of his mindset and value system. If one takes the position that Moriarty was embedded with charisma and it was beyond his control to do anything but to submit to its power, then Moriarty can be sympathetically viewed as a victim. However, if the position is taken that Moriarty was a calculating individual whose romantic flings were deliberately worked toward and pursued as a goal, then Moriarty can be seen as less than a charming Casanova, and more accurately, a dangerous predator that poisons every relationship with which he comes into contact. The many changes of Dean Moriarty, as well as the changes he influences in others and the effects that he has on those with whom he interacts, all conspire to create within him a great deal of conflict and anxiety, which displays itself in a sort of madness. This madness is also important to understand when studying the dynamic nature of Moriarty himself. Moriarty’s Descent into Madness By creating human conflict, chaos and turmoil for virtually everyone he meets, Moriarty has built for himself a complicated lifestyle that can be said to be rooted in madness. This madness, like so many of the other facets of Moriarty’s being, eventually spill out into the open for everyone to see, much like the classic example of someone wearing their heart on their sleeve. Generally speaking, it can be fairly said that one of the most characteristic displays of some level of madness in the mind of Dean Moriarty can be seen in his wanderlust-based lifestyle and personality. Just as Moriarty traveled from one romantic liaison to another, and fathered one child after another, he journeyed from one physical location to another. This journey can be viewed as a quest to fill the emptiness within his soul in some instances, or a desire to escape from any form of commitment in others. The comparison of this journey to the journey of realization that America was taking at the time is also accurate and appropriate. Whichever comparison one chooses, no one can deny that the rapid pace at which Moriarty went back and forth from one destination to another is indicative of at least some level of madness. As Moriarty traveled about, his madness was further shown to be strong and prominent by his disregard for the wellbeing of others. Specifically depicted in the book is Moriarty’s journey to Chicago, during which his outlandish behavior puts others at risk, but he seems not to be concerned about it in the slightest. Yet another piece of evidence that speaks to the level of madness that Moriarty reaches in the book is punctuated by the behavior that he not only sees as nothing out of the ordinary, but also that he recommends to others, and tries to convince them to participate in as something that is acceptable. Specifically, Moriarty at one point makes the suggestion that his protege of sorts, Sal, and his wife join Moriarty in stripping off their clothes and running about in public. What this shows is not only Moriarty’s deteriorated sense of right and wrong, but also his general contempt for the trappings of conventional society, rebellion against that society, and his desire to express his total freedom and ability to do whatever he wishes, whenever he wishes, without any notable consequences for himself or others. Sadly, of course, his actions are creating chaos wherever he goes, even if he is blind to it. Lastly, something needs to be said about Moriarty’s drunken lifestyle, as well as its influence on his behaviors and choices. When he indulges in alcohol binges, his erratic behavior increases, more bad choices are made, and more people are affected for the worse. The women and children that he leaves in his alcoholic wake are forced to pick up the pieces and clean up the messes that Moriarty creates. All the while, he carries on- seemingly oblivious to what he is causing to happen, and dulled by his own vices. Conclusion Just as â€Å"On the Road† profiled an entire generation and reflected the spirit of a nation in transition, so too did Dean Moriarty. Based in part on actual people whom Kerouac knew, this character represented a composite of the quest for happiness and meaning in a chaotic world as well as the paradox of someone who wants to pursue their own enjoyments but too late realizes that total indulgence carries with it a steep price. In conclusion, what is seen in both Moriarty and the story in which he exists is the brilliance, and frailty of the human mind, the search for enlightenment, and the journey along the way- basically, the road that is chosen and what that means for the traveler.

Consent And Informed Consent Nursing Essay

Consent And Informed Consent Nursing Essay The Mosby pocket Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing and Health Profession defines consent as, permission given by an individual acknowledged as legally competent. Informed consent is a requirement necessary prior to any invasive procedure to be performed. Simpson (2011) highlights consent is permission given by the client for a procedure to be implemented. While, Wilhite (2010) explains that informed consent is a process where clients are informed of the risk, benefits and alternative treatment empowering client to play a part to make informed and autonomous decisions proceed for the treatment. As demonstrated by Hall et al. (2012) informed consent encompasses and intersect three different concepts; ethical, legal and administrative factors. Ethically, it safeguards and supports the autonomous decisions made by the client. Hereby, Bosek and Savage (2007) and Rumbold (2002) cites Gillon (1986) defined autonomy as a major ethical principle based on respect for an individual who is capable to think and decide independently for informed choices. Legally, it acts as defence against assault or battery as also supported by Staunton Chiarella (2008). Lastly, administrative purpose ensures that ethical and legal aspects of informed consent are implemented and appropriately documented. In the writers opinion, most sourced definition and concepts are consistent and capture the overall essence of informed consent. However, the definition of informed consent from Mosby pocket Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing and Health Profession lacks the knowledge of information giving and only pointed to invasive procedures. As much as possible, informed consent in nursing procedures should also be included. Consent differs from informed consent. Consent is the act of asking approval to proceed onto a procedure. Conversely, informed consent is a process in which all information relayed is understood by the receiver and decides independently. The act of securing an informed consent is to protect clients rights which resemble the ethical principle of autonomy and avoid any legal ramification to the nurse (Wilhite, 2010). As practicing nurses, we should act as advocates, and build rapport with our client to facilitate the process of obtaining informed consent; Tschudin (2002) affirms that it is also a caring act that involves connecting one another. The next few paragraphs, the professional, ethical and legal drivers will be identified and explained. Professional drivers for nurses are indicated in the professional code of ethics and conduct. It serves as platform for self-regulation, a professional responsibility to ensure that the right and quality duty of care is carried out (Bandman and Bandman, 1995). This corresponds with the ethical theory of Deontology, Thompson et al. (2006) refers Deontology as actions that is based on duties, principles and duties. His view is further reinforced by Bosek and Savage (2007), which emphasise that ones moral duties and responsibilities act is consistent with the right actions. In the Singapore Context, the Singapore Nursing Board (SNB) Code and Ethics and Professional Conduct (1999) value statement 2 states Nurses shall respect the clients right for self-determination and provide them with whatever information they require to make informed decisions concerning their own care. It accentuates ethical principle of upholding autonomy of the client when nurses are securing informed consent. Staunton Chiarella (2008) adds that when a client is asked to give consent to treatment, the nurse is compelled to provide sufficient information. In value statement 2.4, it says nurses should obtain consent for nursing intervention where necessary and collaborate with other members of the health care team to obtain consent for medical treatment. When client are incapable to make informed choices, consent should be sought from family members or significant others. The holistic process of securing an informed consent is encouraged and to be obtained from relatives if otherwise. However, McHale (2009) argues if an adult client ability to decide is deficit or without any represented decision maker; that is appointed by the court or client himself, treatment can proceed in the client best interest and minimise harm caused. This resembles the ethical principles of beneficence and non-maleficence. Beauchamp and Childress (2009) refer beneficence and non-maleficence as acting for the benefit of others following a moral duty and the act of not causing any form of harm. In the context of United Kingdom (UK), the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) Standards of Conduct, Performance and ethics for nurses; Regulation in Practice (2012) declares the regulation of consent taking comprises various aspects of situations, issues and policies. Situational events such as emergencies, issues concern with refusal of consent by competent or incompetent client and minors under age of 16. Lastly, policies of the Mental Health Act, Mental Capacity Act (2005) are incorporated. It embodies the ideal guidelines and procedures of obtaining informed consent. The writer infers SNB say on informed consent taking as ambiguously written, In terms of the choice of words used such as whatever information and where necessary. The writer argues against that whatever information may be misleading on how adequate is whatever information to be disclosed and where necessary is to abide by the convenience of the nurse or clients rights. Conversely, the writer remarks that NMC consent taking procedures are specifically and descriptively written in every section on the regulation. It is used to assist healthcare professional when faced with any moral dilemma or uncertainty. Both professional code of ethics and conduct stresses on the ethical principle of safeguarding autonomy of the clients and protects the nurse against liability of torts. Legal drawbacks related to failure to obtain informed consent may be imposed to the healthcare professionals and face the following claims; battery and/or assault and false imprisonment (Staunton Chiarella, 2008). Fleming (1998) as cited by Aveyard (2002) defines battery and assault as deliberately touching, inducing harm, injury or offensive contact to a client without clients consent. False imprisonment is defined as individual is physically detained from leaving the place (Kelly, 2011). Following a given example, battery may be claimed towards Nurse Jane when she performed a sponge bath intentionally, when the competent conscious adult client who is on complete rest in bed order has refused it. Ethically, Nurse Jane has applied the principles of beneficence, that it is her client best interest that she feels clean fresh after sponge bathing. However, clients autonomy was tempered by not allowing her time to decide and Nurse Jane forced a treatment in contradiction of clients will. Thus, contributing to the liability for tort of battery. In this instance, Nurse Jane has also committed a Paternalistic act. Rumbold (2002) outlines Paternalism as the decisions and preferences of the client are ignored and clinicians act on behalf of the client. The autonomy and beneficent act may conflict and risk becoming a paternalistic act. To prevent paternalism, several writers, (Simpson 2011; Slowther 2007; Aveyard 2002) implies that healthcare professionals should respect clients autonomous rights when treatment is refused even so, if it leads to death. As a practicing nurse, Jane should adopt the caring act and gradually give details about the nature of the intentional procedure. Allowing the client time to decide and promote autonomy. The tort of false imprisonment can be liable to the nurse when a competent client is not committing harm to self or others is detained without his consent (Kelly, 2011). It is similar to a situation whereby a nurse falsely imprisons a competent adult client to the bed raising the side rails of the bed preventing him from getting off the bed without his consent. However, Staunton Chiarella (2008) debates in a contrasting situation whereby after approaches to decrease hostility and violent in an incompetent client failed, the use of restraints are allowed without his consent to protect him and others from potential injuries. The clients next of kin and physician in charge needs to be informed of the reason why he is being restraint at that point of time. It is essential that nurses documents the incident to prevent any liability for the tort of false imprisonment or battery. Moving on, the writer explains how informed consent is obtained and criteria for informed consent to be met via an illustrated example of Nurse Kelly, practising on the surgical floor and had been ordered to insert a urinary catheter for her competent adult client. The criteria(s) that should be met when obtaining consent are; client retains the mental capability to make legal decisions, information given by client is suitable and satisfactory. Lastly, client willingly consents without external pressures or coercion (Thompson et al. 2006). Insertion of urinary catheter is an invasive nursing procedure involving a piece of foreign body into the anatomy of the client. Before commencing on the procedure, Nurse Kelly should alley anxiety of the client by introducing herself; gradually explain the purpose, risk, benefits consequences for inserting the urinary catheter and any reasonable alternatives that is available (Wilhite, 2010). Allowing her some time to decide and make the informed choice. Hence, Nurse Kelly is promoting clients autonomy by allowing client to make optimum decision in the best interest of the client. Nevertheless, Nurse Kelly clients may choose to refuse treatment. Hall (1996) supports, nurses are offering the freedom to refuse when permitting client the autonomy for consent to treatment. This situation often causes great stress and dilemma to the nurse as she has the duty carry out the care to safeguard her client from harm and at the same time, to respect her clients autonomy and the right to refuse. To resolve this dilemma, Nurse Kelly may want to view the decision to refuse, from her clients perspective and the reason for refusal of treatment (Slowther, 2007). At this present times, Chavarriaga (2000) and Cole (2012) admit that the use of implied consent is commonly implemented within the nursing practice. Cole outlines Implied consent as the behaviour of the conscious client is consistent with the nursing procedure that is about to be implemented. It is recognised that the usual nursing procedure such as taking vital signs seen as non-invasive and quick procedure that would not cause any potential harm. However so, the practice of implied should be discourage as much as possible so as to protect patient autonomy and promote meaningful decisions and prevent potential battery can be imposed to the nurse for unrightfully touching. Obtaining informed consent for nursing procedures often seen as a rigid process (Aveyard, 2002). Therefore, as much as possible, it is a better practice in clinical area to practice obtaining informed consent prior to any nursing interventions to uphold the professional obligations as practicing nurses. In a true emergency situation it is an exception area whereby obtaining informed consent is withheld as supported by these writers (Simpson, 2011; Michael, 2002; Chavarriaga, 2000; Hall, 1996). In this exceptional case, consent taking is implied as the ethical principle of beneficence and non-maleficence is prioritised over clients autonomy. It is the Doctrine of necessity where immediate treatment is necessary to preserve the life and prevent harm to the client and it is assumed that client would consent if able to do so (Staunton Chiarella, 2008) In another situation, Michael (2002) insists that when client is scheduled for a surgical procedure that is being done by the physician. It is the responsibility of the physician to secure a written informed consent and not the nurse. As argued by Michael, nurses play a part as a witness and clients advocates during the process of informed consent taking with the physician. Beforehand, nurses could assess for outstanding impairments or limitations such as; language barrier or hearing impairments that would be a hindrance to clients understanding during the process of informed consent (Wilhite, 2010). These are initiatives taken by the nurse to assist and encourage clients autonomy. On balance, literatures referenced are in favour for nurses playing a major role in securing informed consent (Wilhite, 2010; Chavarriaga, 2000; Simpson, 2010; Aveyard, 2002; McHale, 2009; Michael, 2002 Hall et al., 2012). Legal nurses (Wilhite, 2010; Simpson, 2010 Michael, 2002) who authored the literatures emphasise and define on the major role of nurses securing informed consent, Philosopher (Aveyard, 2002 p.243) reaffirms that nurses are required to obtain informed consent prior to nursing care as she views that nurses should not be mechanistic but should be determined by the need of individual patients. Finally, this essay has explained the central importance of whether nurses should or should not play a key role in securing an informed consent. The writer for one believes that nurses should play a major role to secure informed consent for nursing procedures to a greater extend. We are compelled as it is stipulated and articulates in the SNB and NMC code of ethics and conduct. When informed consent is obtained, it acts as a safeguard against legality issues; battery and false imprisonment. However nurses may be faced with obstructions such as time constrains and may choose to obtain implied consent instead. Nurses may face with dilemma when client abuse the freedom of choice and refuse treatment. In spite of those constrictions, in reality, nurses are bounded by guidelines to follow. Thus, nurses have to try their best to accomplish it.

Free Essay on Nathaniel Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter - Light and Darkness :: Scarlet Letter essays

Light and Darkness in The Scarlet Letter Nathaniel Hawthorne, author of The Scarlet Letter, felt that the Puritans were people who believed that the world was a place where the battle between good and evil was a never-ending one. Throughout the novel, Hawthorne uses the symbols of light and dark to depict this battle among the characters Hester Prynne, Pearl, and Roger Chillingworth. After Hester commits her sin, her beauty almost immediately vanishes into darkness. Her hair no longer hangs freely about her face, instead she ties it up in a bonnet. Hester is not perceived as an evil person, but her sin makes her "light" hide away. The sun is used as a descriptor of the goodness or pure nature of character. Because of her sin and the scarlet letter, Hester is no longer pure, therefore she is not seen in the sun. Hawthorne states, "It was only the darkened house that could contain her. When sunshine came again, she was not there." While on a walk to the forest, Pearl, Hester's daughter states, "...the sunshine does not love you. it runs away and hides itself, because it is afraid of something on your bosom." This is evidence that the scarlet letter itself may be the cause of Hester's darkness. Pearl is the character most recognized for her presence in the sun. She is drawn to the sun, as the sun is drawn to her. While at the governor's house, Pearl notices how brightly the sun shines through the windows. She requests that, "the sunshine be stripped off its front and given to her to play with." Hester responds by saying, "No my little Pearl. Thou must gather thine own sunshine. I have none to give thee!" Pearl has been seen as a character that always persists on knowing the truth. While in the forest Pearl wants to hear a story from Hester. She asks Hester if she has ever seen the Black Man. Hester replies that she has seen the Black Man once before. This suggests that the Black Man may be her husband, Roger Chillingworth. Roger Chillingworth is a character who is almost Satan-like. Chillingworth is described as the Black Man by Pearl and his own description of himself suggests that he is a fiend of some kind. When Chillingworth discovers that Dimmesdale was the father of Pearl, he taunts him and makes him feel more guilt than he already possesses. Free Essay on Nathaniel Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter - Light and Darkness :: Scarlet Letter essays Light and Darkness in The Scarlet Letter Nathaniel Hawthorne, author of The Scarlet Letter, felt that the Puritans were people who believed that the world was a place where the battle between good and evil was a never-ending one. Throughout the novel, Hawthorne uses the symbols of light and dark to depict this battle among the characters Hester Prynne, Pearl, and Roger Chillingworth. After Hester commits her sin, her beauty almost immediately vanishes into darkness. Her hair no longer hangs freely about her face, instead she ties it up in a bonnet. Hester is not perceived as an evil person, but her sin makes her "light" hide away. The sun is used as a descriptor of the goodness or pure nature of character. Because of her sin and the scarlet letter, Hester is no longer pure, therefore she is not seen in the sun. Hawthorne states, "It was only the darkened house that could contain her. When sunshine came again, she was not there." While on a walk to the forest, Pearl, Hester's daughter states, "...the sunshine does not love you. it runs away and hides itself, because it is afraid of something on your bosom." This is evidence that the scarlet letter itself may be the cause of Hester's darkness. Pearl is the character most recognized for her presence in the sun. She is drawn to the sun, as the sun is drawn to her. While at the governor's house, Pearl notices how brightly the sun shines through the windows. She requests that, "the sunshine be stripped off its front and given to her to play with." Hester responds by saying, "No my little Pearl. Thou must gather thine own sunshine. I have none to give thee!" Pearl has been seen as a character that always persists on knowing the truth. While in the forest Pearl wants to hear a story from Hester. She asks Hester if she has ever seen the Black Man. Hester replies that she has seen the Black Man once before. This suggests that the Black Man may be her husband, Roger Chillingworth. Roger Chillingworth is a character who is almost Satan-like. Chillingworth is described as the Black Man by Pearl and his own description of himself suggests that he is a fiend of some kind. When Chillingworth discovers that Dimmesdale was the father of Pearl, he taunts him and makes him feel more guilt than he already possesses.

Essays --

Think of place you could call home. This was impossible before the Neolithic Revolution. During the Paleolithic Era, which lasts from the beginning of human life until about 10,000 BCE, people were nomads. They lived as a group and spent most of their time on hunting and gathering food. However, approximately 10,000 BCE, people began to cultivate crops and domesticate animals. This period is known as the Neolithic Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution would not have happened with the development of farming, which was followed by job specialization and the development of more sophisticated technology. First of all, human life totally changed by land cultivation. About 10,000 BCE humans began to grow crops and tame animals. This was a massive change from the old system of hunting and gathering. As a result, permanent settlements were established. This new method of growing food was so efficient that it produced a surplus of food. One of the most famous farming methods was slash and burn. Slash and burn technique is basically people burning a forest and used ash from a tree as a fer... Essays -- Think of place you could call home. This was impossible before the Neolithic Revolution. During the Paleolithic Era, which lasts from the beginning of human life until about 10,000 BCE, people were nomads. They lived as a group and spent most of their time on hunting and gathering food. However, approximately 10,000 BCE, people began to cultivate crops and domesticate animals. This period is known as the Neolithic Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution would not have happened with the development of farming, which was followed by job specialization and the development of more sophisticated technology. First of all, human life totally changed by land cultivation. About 10,000 BCE humans began to grow crops and tame animals. This was a massive change from the old system of hunting and gathering. As a result, permanent settlements were established. This new method of growing food was so efficient that it produced a surplus of food. One of the most famous farming methods was slash and burn. Slash and burn technique is basically people burning a forest and used ash from a tree as a fer...

Examine the Extent to Which Gender Is Socially Constructed

Gender differences are biologically constructed. We are born either as male or female. Without going any further these statements appear normal and one can take the view that this is the general assumption. What then is sex? Is there a difference between sex and gender? Distinctions between sex and gender have been made by social scientists from the feminist movement of 1970’s, when feminists argued that the traditional views of masculinity and femininity often led to the disempowerment of women.Ann Oakley (1972) in particular, set the stage for the socialization explorations of gender identity (Abbott 2005). Since this latter part of the 19th century, the common distinction made by sociologists is that sex is derived from the biological differences between men and women – chromosome make up, internal and external genitals and reproductive organs amongst others. Gender, however, refers to the socially constructed characteristics of masculinity and femininity, characteri stics that are defined by different societies and cultures in different ways.In contrast, there are arguments proposing that gender differences are based on biological sex and result from biological factors – we naturally show characteristics of masculinity and femininity. These different views are often referred to as the nature v nurture debate (Marsh et al 2009, Lippa 2005 and Abbott 2005) Here we will look at some of the biological explanations in support of the assumption that gender differences are biologically determined before moving on to the sociological explorations of the social construction of gender, and the limitations of both views.We will also look at the gender differences across cultures and the influence of the mass media in shaping our society. Biological sex differences have often been used to explain the ‘natural’ differences in roles employed by men and women – men are naturally the breadwinners and the women nurture and take care o f the family. The different arguments for the biological explanations of gender roles are often referred to as ‘essentialism’ and ‘biological determinism’ (Marsh et al 2009). Talcott Parsons (Parsons and Bales 1955 as cited in Marsh et al 009) argued that the natural differences between men and women suit them to specific roles within society. This is referred to as the ‘sex-role’ theory. This theory relies on the premise that there are two distinct categories of men and women throughout the world. It therefore follows that heterosexuality is viewed as the norm. This immediately excludes those persons who feel that their gender identity does not correspond with their biological sex, for example transsexuals and homosexuals.Since the first wave of feminism in the 1970’s the focus has shifted towards the now dominant socialization explanations of gender identity, however we still see new biological theories and studies appearing. For examp le, biological determinists have looked to the differences in male and female brains. In their book Brain Sex (1989), Anne Moir and David Jessel talk of the ‘prenatal hormone’ theory, whereby testosterone has an influence on thought process and emotions leading to the brain being wired differently between men and women (Marsh et al 2009).Simon Baron-Cohen also has similar views – â€Å"the female brain is predominantly hard-wired for empathy, and the male brain is predominantly hard-wired for understanding and building systems†. (Simon Baron-Cohen 2003 as cited in Marsh et al 2009:220). In contrast, the various socialization explanations of gender argue that our gender identities are created by society, by interactions from early childhood with parents, siblings and peers (social learning theory) and by external influences such as the mass media, continually developing through our social interactions and experiences into adulthood.The differences across cu ltures in what is considered as masculine and feminine are also studied in support of this concept. â€Å"The different social experiences of women and men are the creation of society far more than biology† (Macionis and Plummer 2005:308). The social learning theory suggests that from birth we learn what is considered as â€Å"gender-appropriate† behaviours and traits (Marsh et al 2009). â€Å"Infants are seen as blank states, waiting to be written on by their environment† (Bilton et al 2002:136). This theory suggests that through nteraction with parents, siblings and peers, children learn the characteristics of their gender role – which emotions to display, activities to take part in or avoid, toys to play with, clothing to wear, work and hobbies to pursue amongst others. It is also widely accepted that children copy what they see and try to emulate their peers etc. This is referred to by sociologists as ‘modelling’. The majority of persons will recall that some behaviours are encouraged and accepted whereas if a child emulates something that a parent views as wrong or abnormal this is discouraged. The reactions from parents etc. einforce the gender characteristics expected of the child (Marsh et al 2009). A study undertaken in North Carolina of pre school children (Robinson and Morris 1986 cited in Bilton et al 2002) proposes that the social learning theory is an incomplete explanation that we learn all ‘gender-appropriate’ behaviours. In this study, children were themselves selecting ‘gender-stereotyped’ toys for their Christmas presents. For example dolls were selected by the girls and military toys by the boys. The parents selections for the children were mostly sex-neutral – art supplies and musical instruments.The early inclinations of the children to conform to their gender roles cannot be explained by the social learning theory (Bilton et al 2002). In 1971 Sandra Bem, a Pennsylv anian psychologist created the Bem Sex Role Inventory. This inventory lists various characteristics which are stereotyped as being masculine (dominant, athletic) or feminine (affectionate, flatterable). Individuals can assess themselves by selecting which of the characteristics they view as being desirable for a man or woman in order to determine how well you fit into your traditional gender role.The results from a sample of participants show that both men and women share a range of what are considered to be stereotypical feminine and masculine traits (Marsh et al 2009). Some writers have interpreted that Bem is in effect arguing that â€Å"the development of typical gender roles and gender stereotyping are not inevitable† (Marchbank and Letherby 2007:125 as cited in Marsh et al 2009:223). In other words parents, teachers etc. can influence the gender identities of the children.Money and Ehrhdart (1972) report the case of a 7 month old boy who after losing his penis in an acc ident underwent surgery to reconstruct his genitals as female. He was thereafter raised as a girl and is reported to have developed normally as such (Money and Ehrdart 1972 as cited in Bilton et al 2002). This would support the interpreted view of Bem above. The stereotypical gender projections of the mass media are also said to have an influence on our gender identities, often reinforcing gender stereotypes. â€Å"The media are forms of pedagogy that teach us how to be men and women† (Kellner 1995:5 as cited in Marsh et al 2009:231).Some argue that the media however offers a variety of images that both challenge and support stereotypical views (Stacey 1994 as in Marsh et al 2009). Feminine stereotypes are reinforced by media representation of the fashion, beauty and diet industries, focussing on physical improvement and reinforcing the stereotype that women should always look their best and ‘primp’ and ‘preen’ themselves. Programmes such as How to L ook Good Naked and Extreme Makeover are becoming increasingly popular. Masculine stereotypes are also reinforced in advertising.For example, the beer industry relies on the masculine stereotype to appeal to its audience and alternatives such as gay men and househusbands amongst others are markedly absent from this type of advert. (Strate 2004 cited in Marsh et al 2009). The media is viewed by sociologists as a powerful tool in conveying stereotypical and idealistic views of femininity and masculinity to its audience. Other arguments and studies highlighting the social construction of gender look at the different views across different cultures upon what characteristics are considered as masculine and feminine.Margaret Mead, an American cultural anthropologist, undertook a study of three primitive societies within New Guinea (1935), the Arapesh, the Mundugumor and the Tchambuli. Mead noted that the Arapesh men and women expressed similar attitudes and behaviours. They were peaceful, sensitive and cooperative, traits that in our culture are considered as feminine. The Mundugumor men and women again shared similar behaviours, however, in contrast to the Arapesh they displayed what we would view as masculine traits – aggressive, selfish and ‘warlike’.The Tchambuli men and women, similar to our culture, displayed different behaviours although the women displayed masculine traits of dominance and aggression, and the men displayed feminine traits, having responsibility for domestic activities and care of the young as well as ‘primping’ and decorating themselves (Macionis and Plummer 2005, Marsh et al 2009). A further example of the cultural differences surrounding masculinity and femininity can be seen in Samoa where men can take on the role and identity of females. They are known as fa'afafine which literally means ‘like a woman’.The biological sex is male but the gender is considered as female. They dress like women, ca rry out what are considered as the female tasks within the household – cooking, cleaning, and washing and have relationships with other men. It can be the choice of a boy to take on a female role or it may be that they are raised as fa’afafine by their family if they have no or few daughters needed to undertake the female role within the household. Although men have relationships with the fa'afafines they strongly feel that this is not homosexual behavior.Fa’afafines consider themselves female and believe that the men who have relations with them also see them as female (See – National Geographic Channel ‘Taboo’ studies). We can see clearly from Mead’s study and the fa’afafines in Samoa that different cultures define masculinity and femininity in different ways. Gender identities are capable of being shaped or formed, therefore giving substantial weight to the argument that gender is socially constructed and is derived from our social and cultural traditions and views.On balance, the arguments of the biological determinists appear very limited in their application to those outwith the ‘normal’ heterosexual categories of male and female. In contrast the socialization explanations show that we can influence gender identities and that although sex is biologically determined it does not automatically follow that we naturally inherit the stereotypical characteristics of masculinity and femininity. Mead’s study alone provides strong evidence to support this point.To conclude, the general assumption and explanations that gender differences are biologically determined appear to have been somewhat overshadowed since the 1970’s. The majority of sociologists are in preference of the views, studies and evidence that support the sociological explanation of gender as being socially constructed with any differences being derived from society and culture. In comparison, the biological viewpoints and theories appear to struggle to correlate with today’s modern and multicultural society.References Abbott, P. Wallace, C. and Tyler, M. (2005) An Introduction to Sociology: Feminist Perspectives. London: Routledge. Bilton, T. , Bonnett, K. , Jones, P. , Lawson, T. , Skinner, D. , Stanworth, M. and Webster, A. (2002) Introductory Sociology. Basingstoke: Macmillan. Lippa, R. A. (2005) Gender, Nature, and Nurture. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Macionis, J. and Plummer, K. (2005) Sociology: A Global Introduction. Harlow: Pearson. Marsh, I. , Keating, M. , Punch, S. and Harden, J. (2009) Sociology: Making Sense of Society. Harlow:Pearson.

College Is Exensive Essay

With a college degree being as needed as it is, it is incredibly expensive to get one. Studies show that many high school graduates that do attend college, attend that following year bringing the colleges plenty of money. After doing some math, the numbers suggest that in general most colleges are bringing in plenty of extra money with an average 5. 3 million dollars of profit. This is something that majorly hurts students financially who are just trying to get a college degree, which will be in turn used to essentially get themselves a well-paying career so they can pay back what they spent to  get their college degree in the first place. Living in today’s society, graduating from high school is simply not enough. Many employers will no longer look for just a high school diploma when considering hiring somebody, but they instead look for a college degree. A college education is almost as necessary for today’s youth as having a place to live, especially because it’s incredibly difficult for many people to afford a home without the financial stability that comes with a job provided by a college education. Our society is extremely dependent on colleges; but, are we in some way harming ourselves by sacrificing huge portions of our annual income to these institutions? Colleges may be too expensive to call for every high school graduate in the United States attending one. In a study by the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, it was found that 66 percent, or two of every three high school graduates attend college right out of high school (â€Å"College,† 2014). We estimate that for the 2013-2014 school year there will be 3. 3 million high school graduates (â€Å"What,† n. d. ) , and we know that about. 2,178,000 or two-thirds of the graduates will go on to attend college right away. Now taking an average cost of college at about $20,000 (â€Å"What’s,† n. d. ), we find that colleges across the U. S. bring in around an estimated total of $44,425,000,000 per year. That’s 44. 4 billion dollars towards U. S. colleges every year from the students alone. When we consider that there is a rough 6,700 colleges in the U. S. , it can be reasoned that, if every college received the same amount of money, the average income per college per year would be about $6,600,000. Now consider the fact that an average college can be kept  running on around $1,300,000 (Agron, 2009) (this price varies between colleges, given a more prestigious college will use more money to pay for better teachers and academic opportunities). This means that on average, colleges gain an annual profit of around $5,300,000 per year. College is extremely expensive, and the amount of money that they seem to keep each year is far too much. We don’t just pay only for our education when we pay for college, but also to the board members most likely using the extra money brought in for comfort, providing a nicer lifestyle for themselves. While I do understand that colleges  need to bring in large amounts of money to stay in the black, I do not support the need to charge the incredibly costly amounts that they do. References Agron, J. (2009, April 1). 38th Annual Maintenance & Operations Cost Study for Colleges. Retrieved March 10, 2015, from http://asumag. com/Maintenance/university-maintenance- operations-cost-study- 200904? page=15 College Enrollment and Work Activity of 2013 High School Graduates. (2014, April 22). Retrieved March 10, 2015, from http://www. bls. gov/news. release/hsgec. nr0. htm What are the new Back to School statistics for 2014? (n. d. ). Retrieved March 10, 2015, from http://nces. ed. gov/fastfacts/display. asp? id=372 What’s the Price Tag for a College Education? (n. d. ). Retrieved March 10, 2015, from https://www. collegedata. com/cs/content/content_payarticle_tmpl. jhtml? articleId 10064.

Importance Of Critical Thinking In Psychology - 1275 Words

Critical thinking is essential to all disciplines of psychology. As a scientific subject the information presented with any argument or conclusion cannot just be taken at face value. To understand this, we must first understand what is meant by critical thinking. Critical thinking is â€Å"the objective analysis and evaluation of an issue in order to form a judgement.† (â€Å"critical thinking | Definition of critical thinking in English by Oxford Dictionaries†, 2017). Based on this definition, critical thinking within psychology means we do not accept all arguments and conclusions we are exposed to but question them and focus on what evidence is already involved to support a particular argument, conclusion or theory. (â€Å"What is Critical Thinking? -†¦show more content†¦This law is important in critical thinking within psychology as it allows us to objectively interpret the two pieces of research and accept which one is cognitively simplest and therefore m ore fitting with the research subject. This demonstrates that without the critical thinking of Valenstine Delgado’s theory of locating a taming centre for aggression may have been accepted, even though there was a cognitively simpler explanation. Delgado’s theory may have also had major implications for society. If people believed that aggression could be switched off so simply the experiment could have been conducted on humans, involving electrode implantation which could have led to psychological and physical harm. But even without these experiments going further, the experiment Delgado performed was not ethical. The bull, unlike a person, was not able to consent or withdraw. Electrode implantation is not of any benefit to the bull and would have been physically and psychologically harming. Also, it could have led to much more severe damage, especially due to the fact theShow MoreRelatedA Good Writer By General Uses No Wasted Words, Correct Grammar, And All Of The Basics872 Words   |  4 Pagescommunicate that topic efficiently. In psychology, an important skill in writing is being able to communicate through metaphor in order to explain psychology concepts that are abstract. For example when I am studying the correlation between attention and memory, it is important to define the terms that I am using scientifically and to operationalize them. 2. Q: What general things might I think about if I want to be a strong student writer within psychology as well as any more specific pointers youRead MoreNature Vs. Nurture And How Studying Psychology Can Improve Critical Thinking818 Words   |  4 Pagesimprove the future is the inherent mission of history. The study of psychologies past endeavors to help future generations of psychology-minded individuals how the past discoveries that were implemented, and altered within the field. As with any history, knowing the successes, and possible mistakes in the within the field development can only assist future experiences. In examining the history of the psychology, upcoming psychology students are able to talk over the age-old debate of nature versusRead MorePsychology : A Profession And A Science1525 Words   |  7 PagesPsychology is both a profession and a science. As a profession, it is concerned with foreseeing how individuals will act, helping individuals to modify their beha viour and helping associations, groups and societies change. Then again as a science psychology is the investigation of how individuals see (Super Super, 2009). A percentage of the psychological professions include clinical psychology, counseling psychology, health psychology, forensic psychology, social psychology etc. (Keether MorganRead MoreReview Of Look At Your Fish 987 Words   |  4 PagesEducations role in developing creative and critical thinking places a valuable and beneficial skill for students thought process. Because of educations appreciation to teach on creativity and critical thinking, the three articles give you great examples and insight on critical thinking and creativity. In Laura Pappano’s test â€Å"Learning to Think Outside the Box†, she informs her audience that her main argument states that creativity and creative thinking can be very so taught, and colleges from allRead MoreSevere Depression1354 Words   |  6 Pagespsychologists who arg ue the administering antidepressants alone is not an effective way of treating severe therapy. Annotated Bibliography Adler, A. (1956). The individual psychology of Alfred Adler. New York. Harper Row. This book is about psychology. It looks at how a person thinks and function in relation to the environment he or she is in. This book is important in this research because it looks at different models that try to explain the cause of theRead MoreCritical Thinking Essay1163 Words   |  5 PagesINTRODUCTION Critical thinking has been defined in great depth over thousands of years yet comparison of many of these definitions show the emphasis alters between what characteristic is deemed most important for each individual. However the definition alters, the same three important principles are always included: scepticism, open-mindedness and objectivity. It is important for each individual to conclude his or her own definition of critical thinking to enable a specific authenticity thatRead MoreAbnormal Human Behavior946 Words   |  4 PagesIn reflecting on the above outlined competency, I found myself thinking, without the existence of abnormal human behavior, my life would not have been as interesting as it currently is. Throughout my adolescent years, primarily through observing others consistently, I was able to develop a profound interest and dedicated pensive thoughts into understanding the cognition and behaviors of human beings. As such, I would spend hours weekly, trying to unde rstand why individuals think differently, seekRead MoreCritical Thinking And Core Self Reflective Learning1424 Words   |  6 PagesCritical Thinking and Core Self Reflective Learning: A Personalised Perspective Bradley Graham ABSTRACT The application of critical thinking and self-evaluation is limitless as it can be applied to everything simply by answering the following questions: What did I do? How did I do it? How could I do it better? And what would I do differently in the future to improve? Because of this critical thinking and self-reflective learning is essential in the development of an individuals self and skillsRead MoreCritical Thinking Has Been Defined Many Ways Throughout1511 Words   |  7 PagesCritical thinking has been defined many ways throughout time. The definition I chose to go with was from Edward Glaser who defines critical thinking as â€Å"The ability to think critically, as conceived in this volume, involves three things: (1) an attitude of being disposed to consider in a thoughtful way the problems and subjects that come within the range of one s experiences, (2) knowledge of the methods of logical inquiry and reasoning, and (3) some skill in applying those methods.† (Glaser 194 1)Read MoreCritical Thinking On Moral Behavior1001 Words   |  5 PagesAbstract This research focuses on the importance of moral behavior and its relations with critical thinking. In order to do this I chose to view a certain situation that occurred and had the qualities to prove and discuss my main topic. I chose to use a recent story that occurred during the 2016 NFL Draft, in which a player by the name Laremy Tunsil was publicly humiliated due to him going against his moral behavior. His agent, family, and himself all had to find a way to quickly and critically think

The Harlem Hellfighters The Forgotten Heroes Of Wwi Essay

The Harlem Hellfighters: The Forgotten Heroes of WWI The French called them the Men of Bronze out of respect, and the Germans called them the Hellfighters out of fear. This quote by Max Brooks perfectly describes one of the most decorated World War 1 units that you’ve probably never heard of. Yes, you heard that right, one of the most decorated American units and you have probably never heard of them. They are the Harlem Hellfighters, and their story is one that should be taught in history books all around the country. Information regarding the Harlem Hellfighters— including facts about the infantry, war stories, and racism showed to them— will help provide evidence to back up my argument on why I believe they should be included in history textbooks. As stated earlier, the Harlem Hellfighters came back from WWI as one of the most-decorated American units, but their journey to that point was not an easy one. Originally the 15th New York National Guard Infantry Regiment, the Harlem Hellfighters were an all-black infantry unit during WWI. Their name was changed to the 369th Infantry during the war. The infantry, although properly trained for battle, began the war with labor jobs rather than seeing the battlefield. They mostly spent their time unloading ships. While in America, they never got a chance to see battle because white soldiers in other regiments refused to fight with African Americans. In an NPR article titled, â€Å"The Harlem Hellfighters: Fighting Racism in